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- Modified Radical Mastectomy With Knife Technique
- 作者:黄东航|发布时间:2012-10-24|浏览量:509次
Valerie L. Staradub, MD; Monica Morrow, MD
ABSTRACT Infusion of the breast with a tumescent solution of dilute epinephrine hydrochloride in lactated Ringer solution in patients undergoing modified radical mastectomy allows the procedure to be performed rapidly with scalpel dissection and minimal blood loss. The classic technique of modified radical mastectomy with addition of the tumescent solution is described herein.福建省立医院基本外科黄东航
Although most women with early-stage breast cancer are eligible for any of these surgical modalities, MRM remains the most common surgical therapy for patients with stages I and II breast cancer in the United States. Absolute indications for MRM include the presence of tumor in more than 1 quadrant of the breast (multicentric disease), diffuse suspicious or indeterminate calcifications on the mammogram, and contraindications for radiation therapy (including the first or second trimester of pregnancy or a history of therapeutic radiation to the breast field for previous breast cancer or as part of treatment for another condition, eg, Hodgkin disease or lung cancer). Other relative indications for MRM include a large tumor-breast ratio precluding good cosmesis with breast conservation therapy, scleroderma, or lupus erythematosus. In the remainder of women with early-stage disease, MRM confers no survival advantage, and surgical therapy should be dictated by patient preference.
Modified radical mastectomy always includes removal of the breast tissue, the nipple-areolar complex, and the ipsilateral axillary lymph nodes. Variations have been described, including removal of the pectoralis minor muscle or division of its tendon to facilitate axillary exposure. We rarely, if ever, find these maneuvers necessary, and the technique we describe preserves the pectoralis minor muscle and its tendon. Most descriptions of MRM included removal of the pectoralis major fascia. The fascia was initially thought to be a barrier to the lymphatic spread of tumor. However, subsequent studies have shown that lymphatic vessels penetrate the pectoral fascia, suggesting that it is unlikely to stop the spread of the cancer. This fascia may be preserved to facilitate implant reconstruction, if care is taken to meticulously remove all breast tissue superficial to the fascia. If implant reconstruction is not being considered, our technique is to remove the pectoralis fascia to ensure complete removal of breast tissue.
Evidence in the literature disagrees whether an MRM is best performed using the cold knife or electrocautery. Electrocautery is said to reduce blood loss but to increase the rate of seroma formation. Electrocautery might also result in a slightly higher rate of wound complications. One study showed a shorter operative time for scalpel use compared with electrocautery. Our technique involves using the scalpel for dissection after infiltrating the breast with a tumescent solution containing dilute epinephrine hydrochloride, a technique frequently used by plastic surgeons in flap dissection and liposuction. This technique markedly decreases blood loss during the dissection, which was previously cited as the major disadvantage to the knife technique. Electrocautery is used as needed to coagulate bleeding vessels.
OPERATIVE TECHNIQUE
POSITIONING AND PREPARATION
The patient is positioned supine at the edge of the table toward the operative side, with the ipsilateral arm at a 90° angle on an arm board. Padding of the arm board can prevent subluxation of the shoulder with brachial plexus stretch. The axilla is shaved if appropriate. Standard surgical preparation is used, extending well below the inframammary crease, across the midline, and to the supraclavicular fossa to facilitate skin mobilization if necessary to allow closure. The entire ipsilateral arm is prepared to the wrist, the arm board is covered with a Mayo stand cover, and the arm is draped to above the elbow with an impervious stockinette. The field drapes are then brought underneath the shoulder on the operative side so that the entire arm is within the operative field and may be manipulated as necessary. If the patient has undergone a previous open biopsy or preoperative chemotherapy, is otherwise immunocompromised, or is at higher-than-average risk for infection, an antibiotic with a broad spectrum of gram-positive coverage (such as a first-generation cephalosporin) may be given before the incision.
SURGICAL TECHNIQUE
The surgeon stands below the arm board with the first assistant positioned above the arm board on the operative side. A second assistant may be positioned on the contralateral side if desired. The planned incision is outlined using a sterile marker and should include the nipple-areolar complex, the biopsy site if the carcinoma was diagnosed with the use of a surgical biopsy, and any breast skin not necessary for wound closure or immediate reconstruction. Skin is not preserved for reconstruction unless immediate reconstruction is planned. The incision can be oriented in any way that facilitates the inclusion of these structures. Care should be taken not to extend the incision medially to the sternum or laterally off the breast mound, as this will result in unsightly "dog ears." Exposure in these areas will be obtained by raising skin flaps. Tumescent solution is used to allow a hemostatic dissection with the knife. This solution consists of 1 L of lactated Ringer solution mixed with 30 mL of 1% lidocaine hydrochloride with epinephrine at a ratio of 1:1000. The tumescent technique was initially developed for liposuction and is used to reduce blood loss in a variety of plastic surgical flap procedures. When used for mastectomy, it is critical that the skin incision be sketched before the infusion of tumescent fluid, as it may be very difficult to accurately determine the amount of skin that must be removed once the breast has been infused with the solution.
Tumescence is achieved using a pressure infusion system. Several stab incisions are made using a No. 15 blade just inside the line of planned resection for insertion of a blunt needle. The solution is infiltrated into the subcutaneous space over the entire breast and into the axilla and deep substance of the breast (Figure 1). Solution should be infused until the breast is firm to the touch, which, depending on the breast size, may require from 500 mL to 2 L of solution. Care should be taken to avoid injecting the solution directly into the tumor bed itself. A manual injection technique may also be used. In this case, a spinal needle is attached to a spring-loaded syringe with a 3-way stopcock and intravenous extension tubing. These needles can easily penetrate the axillary vein, so care should be taken when injecting in this area.
The incision is made using a No. 10 blade along the previously sketched lines and carried through the skin and subcutaneous tissue. With the use of sharp skin hooks to elevate the skin, flaps are carefully raised with the No. 10 blade in the plane that is deep to the subcutaneous fat but superficial to the breast parenchyma (Figure 2). The thickness of the flap will vary with the amount of subcutaneous fat present. However, firm manual retraction of the breast tissue away from the skin tends to show this plane quite effectively. Surgeons accustomed to determining flap thickness by means of palpation need to be aware that the use of tumescence causes the flaps to feel thicker. Flaps are raised superiorly to the level of the clavicle, medially to the lateral edge of sternum, inferiorly to the superior aspect of the rectus sheath, and laterally to the latissimus dorsi muscle (Figure 3). Once the flaps have been completed, the pectoralis major fascia is divided and then elevated off the muscle using the knife, beginning at the superior aspect of the breast and continuing inferiorly (Figure 4). Internal mammary perforating vessels along the lateral sternal edge are ligated and divided as they are encountered, whereas smaller perforators from the muscle are cauterized. The breast is left attached at the inferolateral edge of the dissection to provide countertraction during the axillary dissection.
Next, the breast is freed from the lateral edge of the pectoralis major muscle. The medial pectoral bundle should be carefully identified and preserved. The muscle is gently retracted using a small Richardson retractor, and the axillary investing fascia is opened along the edge of the pectoralis minor to allow a retractor to be placed beneath it during the axillary dissection.
Next, the previously identified edge of the latissimus dorsi muscle is followed superiorly until it turns tendinous, where it is crossed by the axillary vein. The intercostobrachial nerves will be encountered as this dissection progresses and should be identified during this step and preserved to avoid numbness of the upper inner arm. No other important structures cross this plane of dissection, making it the safest approach to the axillary vein.
Once the axillary vein is identified, its overlying fat is divided in a lateral-to-medial fashion (Figure 5). Care should be taken to avoid stripping the vein completely of overlying fat and lymphatics, because this may increase the potential for lymphedema. Dissection should also be avoided superior to the axillary vein. Once the vein has been exposed, dissection once again commences in a lateral-to-medial fashion just below the vein. This dissection is performed approximately 5 mm below the vein rather than immediately on its inferior surface. This approach will prevent a side hole in the vein in the event that a side branch is inadvertently transected. Often, a large lymphatic courses parallel to the vein (usually on its inferior surface), and this should be preserved if possible. With the use of gentle caudal traction on the axillary contents by the first assistant, the superficial fat is dissected, and branches of the axillary vein are divided and tied as encountered using 3-0 silk ties. An anterior thoracic branch from the axillary vein usually overlies the deeper thoracodorsal vein. Dissection should be performed systematically in a medial-to-lateral, layer-by-layer fashion rather than opening small pockets of tissue in an attempt to initially identify the deeper vein branches or the thoracodorsal or long thoracic nerves.
The thoracodorsal vein, with its accompanying artery and nerve constituting the thoracodorsal neurovascular bundle, is usually the first deep branch to be identified when dissecting in this medial-to-lateral pattern (Figure 6). The nerve is generally identified medial to the vein. Its identity is confirmed by means of a gentle compression of the nerve, which results in a slight movement of the shoulder in the unparalyzed patient. As soon as the thoracodorsal neurovascular bundle has been identified and the superficial axillary vein branches have been ligated, attention is turned to the space between the chest wall and the axillary contents immediately below the axillary vein. The long thoracic nerve is identified by inserting 2 fingers into this space and gently spreading along the chest wall in a craniocaudal direction. The long thoracic nerve can usually be seen lying against the chest wall, and its identity can be confirmed by a small movement of the serratus anterior muscle with a gentle pinch of the nerve. Occasionally, the nerve is not located against the chest wall, signifying that it has been pulled laterally with the axillary tissue. The nerve is then identified, dissected free of the axillary tissue, and pushed back toward the chest wall. The safest method of dissecting the long thoracic nerve is to dissect immediately anterior to it, visualizing the nerve at all times. Dissection of the medial side of the nerve should not be undertaken, as this only pulls the nerve off the chest wall and into the operative field. The nerve should be followed inferiorly until it is seen to enter the serratus anterior muscle. The distal portion of this dissection is often facilitated by first dissecting the specimen free from the thoracodorsal neurovascular bundle as described below.
Once the long thoracic and thoracodorsal nerves have been identified, the axillary tissue remaining between them can be encircled with a right-angle clamp and divided (Figure 7). A tie is placed on the side that will remain to decrease the lymphatic leak. At this point, any intercostobrachial nerves that will be preserved must be carefully dissected free from the axillary specimen. Often, the maneuver to identify the long thoracic nerve will identify the medial end of the intercostobrachial nerve. Since the lateral ends of the nerves were identified during the dissection along the latissimus, they can be freed from the specimen by dividing the intervening axillary fat until the nerve is free. Gentle traction on the nerves using a vein retractor can facilitate the tracing of these nerves. Intercostobrachial nerve preservation is generally not performed in the axilla with grossly positive findings for cancer. Once the intercostobrachial nerves have been dissected free, they are gently pushed superiorly out of the way, and the tissue between the long thoracic and thoracodorsal nerves is bluntly swept down using an unfolded gauze sponge (Figure 8). Next, the specimen is freed from the thoracodorsal neurovascular bundle by dissecting along the anterior surface of the bundle. Invariably, several small anterior branches of the vein enter the specimen, and these must be ligated or clipped. The bundle is carefully followed until the nerve and vessels are seen to dive into the latissimus on its deep medial surface. The inferior axillary contents and the remainder of the breast specimen are then freed from the chest wall. Care is taken not to injure the long thoracic nerve where it enters the serratus anterior muscle. Figure 9and Figure 10show the completed axillary dissection.
Once the specimen has been passed off, the wound is irrigated with warm saline and hemostasis is meticulously achieved. Two No. 19 round-suction drains are used in the most dependent portions of the dissection. One is placed in the axilla after trimming the drain to avoid contact with the axillary vein. The other is laid underneath the inferior skin flap. Both are brought out through stab wounds inferior to the lateral portion of the incision and secured. The incision is closed with a deep dermal layer of interrupted 3-0 absorbable sutures, and the skin is closed with a running subcuticular stitch of 4-0 absorbable suture (Figure 11). Sterile dressing strips are placed over the incision, and a light dry gauze dressing is used to cover the wound. The following day, the dressings are removed and the patient is instructed in drain care and discharged. Drain output is recorded by the patient, and the drains are removed when the 24-hour output is less than 30 mL for 2 consecutive days. The use of oral antibiotics while the drains are in place is not usually necessary. The patient begins arm exercises the day after surgery and continues them until range of motion returns to normal. Adjuvant chemotherapy or chest wall irradiation therapy is not initiated for at least 2 weeks after surgery.
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